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This article provides information about the Ideal-Typical Perspectives of Modernization (Two Major Variants)
Modernisation process has yielded a vast amount of writing. There is no unified perspective on modernisation. These are some of the major perspectives on modernisation:
i. The Ideal-Typical
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ii. The Diffusionist
iii. The Psychological
iv. The Marxist
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Similarly, the Marxist perspective has also contested the other four perspectives, The Ideal-Typical Perspective. This approach has manifested itself in two major variants, namely:
(i) The Pattern Variable Perspective:
i. The modernisation of technology, leading to a change from simple traditionalised techniques to the application of scientific knowledge;
ii. The commercialisation of agriculture, which is characterised by the move from subsistence to commercial fanning, leading to a specialisation in cash-crop production and the development of wage-labour;
iii. Industrialisation, which depicts the transition from the use of human and animal power to machine power;
iv. Urbanisation, which brings about the movement from farm and village to the large urban centres.
These processes sometimes occur simultaneously and sometimes at different times. For example, in many colonial situations, agriculture becomes commercialised without industrialisation. Nevertheless, these four processes affect the social structure of traditional society in similar ways. Firstly, as a result of these changes taking place simultaneously or at different rates, traditional societies became more structurally differentiated.
For Smelser, a developed economy and society is characterised by a highly differentiated structure, whilst an underdeveloped one is relatively lacking in differentiation. By “differentiation” Smelser meant the process by which more specialised and more autonomous social units were established. He saw this as occurring in several different spheres of traditional society, in the economy, the family, the political system and religious institutions. Secondly, so, structural differentiation is the process whereby one social role or organisation differentiates into two or more roles or organisations which function more effectively in the new historical circumstances. The new social units are structurally distinct from each other, but taken together are functionally equivalent to the original unit.
Thirdly, Smelser shows that through such differentiation, social disturbances, such as mass hysteria, outbursts of violence, religious and political movements may occur, which reflect uneven processes of change. This can lead to conflict between the old and new orders of society. In other words, it produces what Durkheim called “anomie” or normlessness — a state of conflicting norms in society and a culture of discontent, where people are unable to realise their aspirations and may turn to violence, crime and other anti-social behaviour or to self- destructive acts such as suicide.
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As Weber also showed, at the religious level the process of secularisation causes disenchantment, fragmentation between competing or partial world-views, social and private worlds become meaningless and there is a sense of despair and hopelessness. One of the reactions to modernisation has been the emergence of fundamentalist movements that reject modern values and preach a return to traditional ones.
(ii) Historical Stage Perspective:
In this perspective apart from identification of the gap between characteristics of development and underdevelopment, it also specifies the intermediate stages and their characteristics. This perspective is mainly associated with Rostow and his economic model developed in 1960. Walt Rostow was an economic historian who served as an adviser to the American government. His book, entitled The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto was pre-capitalist and neo-evolutionary in nature and derived from the idea of an earlier evolutionary theory that change and development take place according to a set of ordered sequences.
According to Rostow, the processes of change are simpler and self-sustaining. Economic growth could be achieved by following a five-stage model of growth. He suggested that “all societies can be placed in one of five categories or stages of economic growth”.
i. The essential feature of the traditional society is that output is limited because of the inaccessibility of science and technology. Values are generally “fatalistic”, and political power is non-centralised. Large number of people are employed in agriculture, which has very low productivity because of the factors mentioned above. In such a society, family and clan groupings are emphasised in the social organisation.
ii. This second stage of growth is one of transition. A traditional society does not move directly into the process of industrialisation; first certain preliminaries need to take place. There are clusters of new ideas favouring economic progress arising and therefore new levels of education, entrepreneurship, and institutions capable of mobilising capital like banks, etc.
Investment increases, especially in transport, communications and raw materials, with a general direction towards commercial expansion. But, in accordance with Rostow, traditional social structures and production techniques remain the same. There is the presence of a “dual society”.
iii. The takeoff stage finally the old, traditional order and resistances are overcome. New forces, which trigger economic growth, expand and dominate the society. Agriculture is commercialised, there is a growth in productivity because that is necessary if the demand emanating from expanding urban centres is to be met.
New political groups representing new economic groups push the industrial economy to new heights. In Britain, Canada and the United States, the proximate stimulus for take-off was mainly, though not entirely, technological. The takeoff period began in Britain after 1783, in France and in United States around 1840, in Russia in about 1890 and in countries like India and China around 1950.
iv. The drive to maturity, the growing economy drives to extend modern technology in all its economic activities. Between 10 and 20 per cent of gross domestic product is invested and the economy takes its place in the international order. Technology becomes more complex, refined and there is a move away from heavy industry. Now production is not the outcome of social necessity but of the need of maximising profits to survive in a competitive capitalist market.
v. Mass consumption is final stage, the leading economic sectors specialise in durable consumer goods and services. At this stage, economic growth makes sure that basic needs are satisfied and more resources are allocated for social welfare and social security. The emergence of the welfare state is an example. Durable consumer goods and services are diffused on a mass basis.