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Some of the main theories regarding the origin of caste system in India are: (i) racial theory, (ii) political theory, (iii) occupational theory, (iv) traditional theory, (v) guild theory, (vi) religious theory and (vii) evolutionary theory:
The exact origin of caste system cannot be traced. The system is said to have originated in India. The records of the Indo-Aryan culture contain the first mention and a continuous history of the factors that make up caste. The people, who are known as Indo- Aryans belong linguistically to the larger family of peoples designated either as Indo-Europeans or as Indo-Germans.
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They comprised the Anglo-Saxons, the Celts, the Romans, the Spanish, the Portuguese, and the Iranian among others. One of the branches of these peoples which reached India about 2,500 B. C. is called Indo-Aryans.
(i) Racial Theory:
According to Dr. Mazumdar, the caste system took its birth after the arrival of Aryans in India. In order to maintain their separate existence the Indo-Aiyans used for certain groups and orders of people the favourite word ‘varna’, ‘colour’. Thus they spoke of the ‘Dasa varna’, or more properly the Dasa people.
Rig Vedic literature stresses very significantly the differences between the Arya and Dasa, not only in their colour but also in their speech, religious practices, and physical features. The three classes, Brahma, Kshatra and Vis are frequently mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name of the fourth class, the ‘Sudra’, occurs only once in the Rig Veda.
The first two classes, i.e., Brahma and Kshatra represented broadly the two professions of the poet-priest and the warrior-chief. Vis comprised all the common people. The Sudra class represented domestic servants approximating very nearly to the position of slaves. On the relations subsisting between the four classes the Rig Veda has little to say. However, the Brahmin is definitely said to be superior to the Kshatriya.
(ii) Political Theory:
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According to this theory, caste system is a clever device invented by the Brahmins in order to place themselves on the highest ladder of social hierarchy. Dr. Ghurye states, “Caste is a Brahminic child of Indo-Aryan culture cradled in the land of the Ganges and thence transferred to other parts of India.”
The Brahmanic literature of the post-Vedic period mentions certain mixed classes (Sankara jati) and also a group of outcaste classes (Antyavasayin). Among the four varnas, the old distinction of Arya and Sudra now appears as Dvija and Sudra, The first three classes are called Dvija (twice born) because they have to go through the initiation ceremony which is symbolic of rebirth. “The Sudra was called “ekajati” (once born).
The word “jati” is hence forward employed to mean the numerous sub-divisions of a “varna”. However, this demarcation is not rigidly maintained. The word “jati”, is sometimes used for “varna”. In the Brahmin period the position of the Brahmins increased manifold.
The three lower classes are ordered to live according to the teaching of the Brahmin, who shall declare their duties, while the king also is exhorted to regulate his conduct accordingly. The pre-eminence of the Brahmin had secured him many social privileges sanctioned by the law givers. The statement that God created the Sudra to be the slave of all is repeated and he is given the name of “padaja” (born from the feet).
As the priestly influence grew in India, complicated rules of ritual and conduct were built up and incorporated into the religious books. The Brahmins closed their ranks and tried to maintain their superiority over the other classes.
It is true that in the beginning there were no rigid restrictions but slowly and gradually the idea of separation stiffened. It was first the ritual and ceremonial purity which as time went on took an exaggerated aspect. Distinction began to be made between things pure and impure. Restrictions were imposed on food and drink. When the Brahmins closed their ranks, it was but natural that other classes also should follow suit.
(iii) Occupational Theory:
According to this theory, the origin of caste system can be found in the nature and quality of social work performed by the various groups of people. Those professions which were regarded as better and respectable made the persons who performed them superior to those who were engaged in dirty professions.
According to Newfield, “Function and function alone is responsible for the origin of caste structure in India.” With functional differentiation there came in occupational differentiation and numerous sub-castes such as Lohar, Sonar, Chamar. Bhangi. Barhai, Patwa, Teli, Nai, Tamboli, Kahar, Gadaria. Mali, etc. came into existence.
(iv) Traditional Theory:
According to this theory, the caste system is of divine origin. There are some references in Vedic literature wherein it is said that castes were created by Brahma the supreme creator, so that human beings may harmoniously perform the various social functions essential for the maintenance of society. According to Dr. Mazumdar, “if, however we take the divine origin of the Varna’s as an allegorical explanation of the functional division of society, the theory assumes practical significance.”
(v) Guild Theory:
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According to Denzil Ibbetson, castes are the modified forms of guilds.
In his opinion, caste system is the product of interaction of three forces:
(i) tribes,
(ii) guilds, and
(iii) religion.
The tribes adopted certain fixed professions and assumed the form of guilds. In ancient India, the priests enjoyed greater prestige. They were a hereditary and endogamous group. The other guilds also adopted the same practices and in course of time became castes.
(vi) Religious Theory:
Hocart and Senart are the two main advocates of religious theory. According to Hocart, social stratification originated on account of religious principles and customs. In ancient India religion had a prominent place. The king was considered the image of God. The priest kings accorded different positions to different functional groups. Senart has tried to explain the origin of caste system on the basis of prohibitions regarding sacramental food.
He holds that on account of different family duties there grew up certain prohibitions regarding sacramental food. The followers of one particular deity considered themselves the descendants of the same ancestor and offered a particular kind of food as offering to their deity. Those who believed in the same deity considered themselves as different from those who believed in some other deity.
(vii) Evolutionary Theory:
According to this theory, the caste system did not come into existence all of a sudden or at a particular date. It is the result of a long process of social evolution. A number of factors played their part in the development of the present caste system.
Among these factors we may enumerate the following ones:
(i) Hereditary occupations;
(ii) The desire of the Brahmins to keep themselves pure;
(iii) The lack of rigid unitary control of the state;
(iv) The unwillingness of rulers to enforce a uniform standard of law and custom and their readiness to recognize the varying customs of different groups as valid;
(v) Beliefs in re-incarnation and the doctrine of Karma;
(vi) Ideas of exclusive family, ancestor worship, and the sacramental meal;
(vii) Clash of antagonistic cultures particularly of the patriarchal and the matriarchal systems;
(viii) Clash of races, colour prejudices and conquest;
(ix) Deliberate economic and administrative policies followed by the various conquerors particularly by the British;
(x) Geographical isolation of the Indian peninsula;
(xi) Static nature of Hindu society;
(xii) Foreign invasions;
(xiii) Rural social structure.
All the above factors conspired to encourage the formation of small groups based on petty distinctions from time to time. The lack of rigid unitary control of the state, the unwillingness of the rulers to enforce a uniform standard of law and custom, their readiness to recognize the varying customs of different groups as valid, and their usual practice of allowing things somehow to adjust themselves led to the growth of groups and promoted the spirit of solidarity and community feeling in every group.
“Multiplicity of the groups and the thoroughness of the system are also due to the habit of the Hindu mind to create categories and to carry things to their logical end a characteristic manifest in our literature, philosophy and religious creeds.”
It may, however, be noted that caste system is not specifically an institution of the Hindus but is a typical Indian institution. Buddhism in its practice at least was not opposed to the caste system and the two primary attributes of interlining and intermarriage between different hereditary determined sets of people in the same community are also found among the Moslems of India.
Further, caste system, is not a monopoly of India. It existed and still exists in many parts of the world. The feudal system of medieval Europe was a species of caste system. Certain ethnic groups such as Jews and Negroes are still treated as castes in many civilized countries including the United States. What is unique in the Hindu caste system is that it alone classified some groups as untouchable and unapproachable.